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¡¡¡¡1¡¢Education

¡¡¡¡Snooty or what?

¡¡¡¡Oct 14th 2004 From The Economist print edition

¡¡¡¡Inverted snobbery prevents good teachers going where they're needed

¡¡¡¡A clever man wants to do a good thing, but the wicked government stops him. That is the scandalous-sounding story of the difficulties encountered by Tristram Jones-Parry, head of fee-paying Westminster School, one of the best in the country. He retires next year and wants to help teach maths in a state school.

¡¡¡¡Was he welcomed with open arms? No. He was told, he complains, that he would need retraining for the state system. It was a similar story for David Wolfe, a retired American physics professor who teaches in a British state school. He said this week that the authorities told him to sit the GCSEmaths exam normally taken by 16-year-olds if he wanted to continue.

¡¡¡¡The system is not quite as insane as this might suggest. The rules that require state-school teachers to be formally qualified do have exceptions. The Teacher Training Agency insists that Mr Jones-Parry could gain his ticket in just a day, by having an assessor from the state system observe his work at Westminster (a requirement scarcely less ludicrous than the supposed demand for retraining). Mr Wolfe's American PhD would count as an equivalent to the GCSE maths pass normally required. So he would scrape by as well. The General Teaching Council, another quango, has now apologised to Mr Jones-Parry for giving him the wrong information at first, and then leaving his follow-up letter unanswered for six weeks.

¡¡¡¡The real story is the gulf between the two kinds of school. Heads like Mr Jones-Parry hire teachers with good academic credentials but not necessarily with state qualifications. State-school hiring is closely regulated; their teachers need to be expert form-fillers and jargon-wielders, and are much less likely to have good degrees: indeed only 38% of state-school maths teachers have a degree in the subject; in independent schools, 63% do.

¡¡¡¡So it's not surprising that private-school teachers think even the most nominal barriers to their teaching in state schools are offensive and silly. The other side responds in kind: teaching unions this week said snidely that Mr Jones-Parry might be good at teaching advanced maths to well-behaved bright kids, but would not necessarily know how to teach simple sums to rowdy, dim ones. Perhaps. But many state-school parents desperately seeking better maths teaching for their children might consider that risk rather small.

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¡¡¡¡2¡¢Parents and children

¡¡¡¡Family values

¡¡¡¡Sep 30th 2004 From The Economist print edition

¡¡¡¡Rich kids have little time for their elderly parents. The ingratitude!

¡¡¡¡WHY was King Lear treated so cruelly by his daughters? Until recently, most of the answers have come from scholars with scant knowledge of economic theory. Fortunately, John Ermisch, an Essex economist, is working to remedy this deficiency. His research proves what many parents have long suspected¡ªthat increased wealth goes along with filial ingratitude. ¨CTopic sentence

¡¡¡¡Using data from the British Household Panel Survey, Mr Ermisch shows that affluent parents are slightly more likely to supply offspring with money and help with child-rearing than poor parents. But success seems to have precisely the opposite effect on children. The mere possession of a university degree makes children 20% less likely to phone their mothers regularly, and more than 50% less likely to pay them a visit.

¡¡¡¡This is puzzling because self-interested children might be expected to behave in precisely the opposite way. Most wealthy people are descended from wealthy parents, which means they have a lot of patrimony to lose by cutting back on the fawning. ¡°Nothing will come of nothing,¡± as a pre-retirement and still sane King Lear put it when his youngest daughter dared to withhold her affections.

¡¡¡¡So why are rich kids such brats? There are two likely explanations. The first is that, as their income rises, the marginal cost of providing services goes up. It simply isn't worth their while to help with the shopping, particularly since affluence tends to increase distances between parents and children. And, since personal contact correlates with telephone contact, they are less likely to phone, too. Out of sight, out of mind.

¡¡¡¡Another answer comes from an obscure branch of economics known as strategic bequest theory. This predicts that children will provide only enough services to ensure they get a reasonable share of the inheritance. But that point is reached sooner by those who have only one sibling rival, or none at all. Wealthier families, which tend to be smaller, simply fail to ensure the optimum amount of competition.

¡¡¡¡Given these iron laws, what are parents supposed to do? Good results might be achieved by having more children, or expressing a sudden interest in the local cats' home. But Mr Ermisch is not optimistic. ¡°The only thing they can do is follow their children around,¡± he says. And don't make King Lear's mistake by handing over the cash first.

¡¡¡¡3¡¢The internet

¡¡¡¡Alive and kicking Sep 23rd 2004 From The Economist print edition

¡¡¡¡Competition still exists on the web

¡¡¡¡JUST when you thought you knew the web, along come new competitors to keep things interesting. On September 15th, a new search engine called A9.com was unveiled by Amazon, the giant internet retailer. It repackages Google's search results, but with useful tweaks. Searches not only call up websites and images on the same page, but other references, such as Amazon's book search, the Internet Movie Database, and encyclopaedia and dictionary references. Moreover, it keeps track of users' search histories¡ªan important innovation as search becomes more personalised.

¡¡¡¡Many had assumed the market was stitched up by Google and Yahoo! (who account for over 90% of searches), barring the expected entrance of Microsoft. Likewise, the market for online music seemed settled: Apple's iTunes is the leader, its main rivals being RealNetworks and Microsoft's MSN Music. Yet this, too, understates the potential for battle. Last week, Yahoo! bought Musicmatch, an online music retailer and software firm, for $160m. Music downloads are now worth roughly $310m annually but are forecast to grow to $4.6 billion by 2008, according to Forrester Research, so there is room for new firms to sprout.

¡¡¡¡Meanwhile, the most surprising new competition is in web browsers. Microsoft was the undisputed champ( Informal£º=A champion), after bundling Internet Explorer with its Windows operating system in the 1990s and destroying Netscape. However, Microsoft's browser is so vulnerable to attacks by online crooks and various troublemakers that the American and German governments have recommended that users consider alternatives. This has been a boon to two small browser-makers, Opera, a Norwegian software company, and Mozilla, which developed the Firefox browser based on an open-source version of Netscape. Firefox boasted 1m downloads within 100 hours of its release on September 14th.

¡¡¡¡Security has become the main competitive difference. The software of both Opera and Mozilla is considered safer (partly because they have fewer users and so are a less attractive target for hackers). Microsoft's share of the browser market has actually shrunk over the past three months from around 96% to 94%. It is a highly symbolic phenomenon, albeit a modest decrease. Even Google is thought to be toying with the idea of launching its own browser.

¡¡¡¡Underlying this ripple of competition is the ability of large companies that already benefit from economies of scale to extend into new areas, says Hal Varian, an economist at the University of California at Berkeley. That explains Amazon's A9 search service and Yahoo!'s move into music. As for browsers, ¡°Microsoft had a lock on the market and just dropped the ball. Microsoft hasn't provided any innovation in the browser area and they had poor security,¡± he says. The message: watch your back.(1¡ªË×Ó²ÁÁÁÄãµÄÑÛ¾¦;2¡ªMicrosoftµÄÒ»¿îÈí¼þ£¬ÓÃÀ´×èµ²¿ÉÒÉÐÅÏ¢»ò¹ý´óÓʼþ¡£ÕâÀïÒ»ÓïË«¹Ø£¬·´·íÊ®×ã¡£)

¡¡¡¡4¡¢Brain scanning

¡¡¡¡No hiding place

¡¡¡¡Oct 28th 2004 | SAN DIEGO From The Economist print edition

¡¡¡¡Studies using functional brain-imaging take on sophisticated topics

¡¡¡¡FEW recent innovations have transformed a field of research as much as functional magnetic-resonance imaging (fMRI). The technique has revolutionised the study of the human brain. By making visible the invisible (the activity of different bits of the living brain on a second-by-second basis), it has revolutionised the study of that organ. But what started out as a medical instrument is now used routinely to probe complex questions about behaviour and motivation. That was the lesson of two studies presented to a meeting of the Society for Neuroscience, held in San Diego earlier this week.

¡¡¡¡In one of the studies, Jonathan Cohen, of Princeton University, and his colleagues tried to explain an anomaly that has been nagging economists for decades. If humans were fully rational (at least, rational in the way that economists define the word), they would attach the same monetary value to a week's delay in receiving a payment, regardless of when that week began. So, if someone is offered $10 at the beginning of any given week, or $11 at the end of it, he should make the same choice, whether that week starts now or a year from now. But that turns out not to be how most people judge it. In most cases, they will take the $10 today but the $11 in a year and a week.

¡¡¡¡Dr Cohen reasoned that this inconsistency might reflect the influence of different neural systems in the brain. To test this, he recruited 14 students, the traditional workhorses in such studies. While lying in his brain scanner, the students were offered the choice of receiving an Amazon.com gift certificate worth somewhere between $5 and $40 immediately, or getting one worth 1% to 50% more in a couple of weeks' time.

¡¡¡¡When a participant chose the earlier reward, there was an increase in the activity of his limbic system. This is a region of the brain that is involved in emotion. In contrast, when the choice was to delay gratification in exchange for a bigger reward, brain activity was concentrated in the ¡°thinking¡± regions, such as the prefrontal cortex. The inconsistency therefore seems to be the result of different sorts of calculation happening in the two cases.

¡¡¡¡Of course, that does not answer the ultimate question of why evolution has equipped the brain this way. Dr Cohen speculates that it may have something to do with survival when the arrival of resources is scarce and unpredictable, rather than the subject of contracts and an efficient banking system. But it does shine a new light on issues such as drug addiction and procrastination, which are both situations where the temptation of immediate reward can lead to choices that might ultimately be detrimental.

¡¡¡¡While Dr Cohen's group wrestles with how people make choices, Klaus Mathiak, of the University of T¨¹bingen, in Germany, and his colleagues, are using fMRI to study the effects which certain sorts of choice have on brain activity. Specifically, the team is looking at what goes on in the heads of dedicated video-games players during violent ¡°social interactions¡± within a game.

¡¡¡¡Dr Mathiak enlisted 13 gamers who played video games for, on average, 20 hours a week. While the gamers stalked and shot the enemy from the relative discomfort of a scanner's interior, the researchers recorded events in their brains.

¡¡¡¡As a player approached a violent encounter, part of his brain called the anterior cingulate cortex became active. This area is associated with aggression in less fictional scenarios, and also with the subsequent suppression of more positive emotions, such as empathy. Dr Mathiak noted that the responses in his gamers were thus strikingly similar to the neural correlates of real aggression. As he puts it, ¡°Contrary to what the industry says, it appears to be more than just a game.¡±

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¡¡¡¡5¡¢Television

¡¡¡¡Grim reality

¡¡¡¡Nov 4th 2004 From The Economist print edition

¡¡¡¡America's appetite for reality television is flagging

¡¡¡¡¡°THE Rebel Billionaire: Branson's Quest for the Best¡± will make its debut on America's Fox network next week, featuring a British tycoon, Sir Richard Branson, trying to make as successful a reality-TV show as an American mogul, Donald Trump, star of ¡°The Apprentice¡±. A contestant will get dumped in each episode; the winner will get $1m and a job. The timing is not auspicious for Sir Richard. Reality TV has faltered in the American ratings recently, with viewing down for ¡°The Benefactor¡±, ¡°The Bachelor¡± and even ¡°The Apprentice¡±. New shows, such as ¡°The Next Great Champ¡± and ¡°The Last Comic Standing¡±, have done so badly that they have been relegated to cable networks.

¡¡¡¡Too many shows of obviously inferior quality have pricked reality's bubble, says David Poltrack, head of research and planning at the CBS network. According to CBS's audience research, people are especially fed up with the glut of copycat programmes that schedulers have rushed on to the air following the genre's spectacular success over the past few years. That will make it hard for any new reality show¡ªgood or bad¡ªto get a strong start, he says. It also bodes ill for Fox's forthcoming dedicated reality-TV cable channel¡ªespecially as there are two of them already.

¡¡¡¡So is the genre over? Network executives and advertisers agree that the strongest and most original shows will survive¡ªCBS's ¡°Survivor¡±, for instance, remains popular¡ªalthough they will no longer be able to count on any me-too programme succeeding. Reality TV is still far cheaper to make than drama. Advertisers like its younger audiences.

¡¡¡¡There is little sign of fatigue outside America. Familiar formats are making their way across Europe. In Britain, ratings are high for ITV's ¡°I'm a Celebrity, Get Me Out of Here¡±, Channel 4's ¡°Big Brother¡± and Channel 5's ¡°The Farm¡±, in which a celebrity female contestant recently shocked viewers by manually extracting semen from a pig. British telly may in future make fewer reality shows, but (chiefly) only if the publicly funded BBC decides to emphasise ¡°public-service¡± fare in a bid to persuade the government to renew its subsidy.

¡¡¡¡Reality TV's pause in America is allowing scripted drama to bounce back, to the relief of professional actors and scribes who complain of being under-employed. The hit of America's autumn season is ¡°Desperate Housewives¡±, a highly-sexed fictional version of suburban life. Yet reality's techniques are influencing even scripted programmes, says Alan Boyd of Fremantle Media. ABC's new drama, ¡°Lost¡±, for instance, about passengers surviving a plane crash, looks rather like ¡°Survivor¡±. ¡°The Office¡±, a British comedy that has received critical acclaim in America too, looks much like reality TV with a script.

¡¡¡¡6¡¢Smoking

¡¡¡¡Stubbing it out Nov 11th 2004 From The Economist print edition

¡¡¡¡What effect will Scotland's smoking ban have?

¡¡¡¡IT WAS a radical, sweeping and entirely expected move. On November 10th the Scottish cabinet voted to follow Ireland, New York and Norway in banning smoking in public places, including pubs, restaurants and even private members' clubs.

¡¡¡¡The Scottish Executive argues that Scotland is one of the unhealthiest nations in Europe, and smoking is partly to blame. Some 31% of Scots smoke, compared with 26% of Britons. Lung cancer rates are 49% higher in Scotland than in the rest of the country. Jack McConnell, Scotland's first minister, says that cigarette sales in New York fell by 13% after a ban was introduced in 2003, and by 16% in Ireland, which brought one in earlier this year.

¡¡¡¡Whether the public is as keen as its leaders is less clear. The Scottish Executive insists that there is support for a total ban, but a leaked internal poll indicated that only half the population was in favour. A different poll, conducted by Populus for the pro-smoking group Forest, found that 73% opposed an outright ban; most favoured a compromise of some sort.

¡¡¡¡Nor is the likely impact on Scottish business any clearer. The Licensed Traders' Association, which represents Scottish pubs, predicted 30,000 jobs would go. Nonsense, said the government.

¡¡¡¡Evidence from overseas sheds little light. After the ban in Ireland, the Irish Brewers' Association reported a 6% decline in beer sales in pubs. But the Irish are among the heaviest drinkers in Europe, and sales fell by a similar amount in 2003, before the ban. So the decline may be part of a long-term trend. The Vintners' Association, which represents Dublin pubs, says it has clearer statistics: it reckons that trade is down about 16%, and that about 2,000 jobs have gone.

¡¡¡¡Anti-smoking groups prefer to point to New York, where a government study reported that bars and restaurants had hired 2,800 extra staff to cope with increased demand in the wake of the ban there. But the New York Nightlife Association, a trade body, points out that the study covered workers in fast-food restaurants that had never allowed smoking on their premises, even before the ban. It reckons that employment has fallen by 10%¡ªalthough the number of people applying for a licence to run a bar has stayed the same.

¡¡¡¡Smokers will now turn their attention to England, which has been toying with the idea of a ban for some time. Ministers there are thought to be reluctant to ban smoking outright, especially with a general election looming, but new health proposals dealing with the subject are due before the end of the year. No doubt the English ministers will be studying the Scottish debate closely.

¡¡¡¡7¡¢Microfinance

¡¡¡¡Small sums, big issue Nov 18th 2004 | NEW YORK From The Economist print edition

¡¡¡¡The United Nations turns its attention to finance for the poor

¡¡¡¡AMONG the more benign activities of the United Nations is the dedication of various years to specific causes. Mountains, deserts, rice and dialogue have all had their 365 days of fame. There is little evidence that the attention has done mountains, deserts, rice and dialogue any harm¡ªbut also not much to suggest that they have benefited either.

¡¡¡¡In the next 12 months the spotlight falls on microfinance, the business of lending small amounts of money to the poor, taking deposits from them, transmitting money on their behalf and insuring them. With luck, the UN's effort will turn out to be substantial rather than symbolic. It certainly kicked off in style, with a big party at the UN's New York headquarters that demonstrated how fashionable the subject has become. Among the 700 in attendance were top bankers, politicians and a film star or two. The UN also announced the appointment of an advisory panel to consider what may be impeding the growth and effectiveness of microfinance. Its members include businessmen and financiers (as well as the editor of The Economist's business section).

¡¡¡¡The success of the year depends to a great extent on whether the UN can harness its member states and financial institutions to establish some basic facts. Remarkably little is known about how finance operates outside wealthy countries. No good data exist on how many people have access to financial institutions, the breadth and penetration of banks in poor countries, the real cost of a loan and the time it takes to get one, the ease of making a deposit and so forth.

¡¡¡¡Microfinance itself is something of a mystery. There are no authoritative figures on the number and performance of microlending institutions. There is not even convincing information, beyond lots of anecdotes illustrated by photographs of women in rural villages, about whether microfinance makes any significant contribution to economic growth or is merely another philanthropic fad.

¡¡¡¡In principle, loans to the poor should bring great benefits. Because the poor have less capital and often can borrow only with great difficulty, if at all, they ought to use extra capital more productively than the rich. Indeed, this might explain why even in the poorest places there is some form of money lending despite staggeringly high interest rates: 1,000% a year is not uncommon. However, such rates inevitably take a toll on enterprise and economic growth. The year of microcredit will have proven to be of great worth if it can first document the impediments to more efficient forms of financial intermediation and then begin to clear them away.

¡¡¡¡For example, the UN would do well to address the common complaint that banks ignore the poor out of class bias. If they do, the UN's interest may hasten change: some financial institutions are already making efforts to work with the poor, either directly or by providing wholesale services to smaller financial institutions. And many working in microfinance complain that their small size and lack of traditional assets make it hard to attract capital either on their own account or through syndicated loans. A year hence, perhaps some of this will have changed.

¡¡¡¡8¡¢The dollar

¡¡¡¡Further to fall

¡¡¡¡Dec 29th 2004 From The Economist print edition

¡¡¡¡A new year is likely to bring a new low for the dollar

¡¡¡¡THE dollar ended the year as it began: heading downhill. It hit a new low against the euro, below $1.36, on December 28th. Against the yen, it was steadier: ¥103, slightly stronger than in late November. The yen has risen by less than the euro because, although the Bank of Japan has not intervened in the foreign-exchange markets since March, the bank looks more likely to act than the European Central Bank. Japan's finance minister, Sadakazu Tanigaki, gave warning this week that his country's authorities would monitor foreign-exchange markets over the New Year holiday. In contrast, Gerrit Zalm, the Dutch finance minister, suggested that the euro's rise so far was acceptable.

¡¡¡¡Since early 2002 the dollar has lost 37% against the euro and 24% against the yen. But it has shed only 16% against the Federal Reserve's broad basket of currencies, because many Asian currencies are pegged or closely tied to the greenback.

¡¡¡¡The cause of the dollar's decline is hardly a mystery: private investors are less eager to finance America's huge current-account deficit. The deficit widened slightly in the third quarter of 2004, to a record $165 billion, or 5.6% of GDP. If the deficit remains so big, America's foreign debt burden and hence its debt-service payments will increase sharply.

¡¡¡¡So far, America's mounting foreign liabilities have not harmed its economy because the rise in its debt in recent years has been offset by lower interest rates. As a result, America still enjoys a net inflow of foreign investment income despite being the world's biggest debtor. But, as interest rates rise, refinancing America's debt will become more costly. Goldman Sachs forecasts that net foreign investment income is likely to shift to a sizeable deficit during 2005, growing thereafter. The investment bank estimates that, if America's current-account deficit remains steady as a share of GDP and interest rates average 5% in future, net foreign debt-service payments will reach 4% of GDP by 2020¡ªa significant drag on American living standards.

¡¡¡¡By most measures the dollar is already undervalued, but experience suggests that it will need to fall further still to cut the deficit to a sustainable level, say 2-3% of GDP. Capital Economics, a London research firm, forecasts that the dollar will fall to $1.40 against the euro and to ¥90 by the end of 2005. But it expects the dollar to recover against the British pound to $1.82 from $1.93 today, as British interest rates are cut in the wake of falling house prices.

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¡¡¡¡9¡¢Classical music and social control

¡¡¡¡Twilight of the yobs

¡¡¡¡Jan 6th 2005 From The Economist print edition

¡¡¡¡How classical music helps keep order

¡¡¡¡THE question of how to control yobbish behaviour troubles many. One increasingly popular solution is classical music, which is apparently painful to teenage ears. Co-op, a chain of grocery stores, is experimenting with playing classical music outside its shops, to stop youths from hanging around and intimidating customers. It seems to work well. Staff have a remote control and ¡°can turn the music on if there's a situation developing and they need to disperse people¡±, says Steve Broughton of Co-op.

¡¡¡¡The most extensive use of aural policing so far, though, has been in underground stations. Six stops on the Tyneside Metro currently pump out Haydn and Mozart to deter vandals and loiterers, and the scheme has been so successful that it has spawned imitators. After a pilot at Elm Park station on the London Underground, classical music now fills 30 other stations on the network. The most effective deterrents, according to a spokesman for Transport for London, are anything sung by Pavarotti or written by Mozart.

¡¡¡¡When selecting a record to drive people away, the key factor, according to Adrian North, a psychologist at Leicester University who researches links between music and behaviour, is its unfamiliarity. When the targets are unused to strings and woodwind, Mozart will be sufficient. But for the more musically literate vandal, an atonal barrage probably works better. Mr North tried tormenting Leicester's students with what he describes as ¡°computer-game music¡± in the union bar. It cleared the place.

¡¡¡¡If, however, the aim is not to disperse people but to calm them down, anything unfamiliar or challenging is probably best avoided. At the Royal Bolton Hospital, staff have begun playing classical music in the accident and emergency (A&E) ward, as well as in the eye ward and the main reception area. Janet Hackin, a matron in the A&E ward, says that patients do appear calmer, ¡°rather than running around anxious and bleeding all over the place¡±. But classical music might not have much effect on the consequences of more liberal licensing laws. ¡°If they're stone drunk and past it then it doesn't have much effect,¡± confirms Ms Hackin.

¡¡¡¡10¡¢Sex and academia

¡¡¡¡Birdbrained

¡¡¡¡Jan 20th 2005 From The Economist print edition

¡¡¡¡Are women naturally bad scientists?

¡¡¡¡IN HIS three-and-a-half years in the job, the president of Harvard University, Larry Summers, seems to have upset a large number of people. First, he said students were getting too many ¡°A¡± grades because of grade inflation (which was correct). Then he took on Cornel West, a black professor, over his dodgy extra-curricular activities (again, Mr Summers had a point). Now he has suggested that one of the reasons women achieve less in science and maths is that they have less innate ability.

¡¡¡¡Mr Summers's comments were off the record; but he has since confirmed that he did draw attention to the possibility that innate differences, rather than social factors (such as education and treatment in the workplace) might have a role to play. This has drawn howls of complaint from the usual quarters. But, scientifically speaking, is he correct?

¡¡¡¡There is certainly evidence to suggest that the average male and female brains may be different, with men better able to ¡°systemise¡± about the world and women better at ¡°empathising¡±. So are we wired differently from birth?

¡¡¡¡Some clues come from a theory that autism is a developmental disorder that produces an ¡°extreme male brain¡±. Autism is up to four times more common in boys, and is thought to be caused by high levels of testosterone in the womb. Those who have it tend to be better at puzzles and pattern-related tasks than at verbal communication. Maybe males, with more testosterone in the womb, are simply better at non-verbal skills? A medical description of autism practically reads like a scientific job description. Clumsy and overwhelmed by the physical world, autistic minds are often far more comfortable with the virtual realms of maths, symbols and code.

¡¡¡¡However, even if geeks are naturally male, says Susan Ganter, executive director of the Association for Women in Science in Washington, DC (and a mathematician by training), it would not warrant Mr Summers's comments. Nobody knows to what extent such variations are actually important. They may well be a minor factor, while there are plenty of others that undoubtedly affect female success in science. One of these is that it is very difficult to return to science after a career break to have a child¡ªsomething Mr Summers also talked about in his speech.

¡¡¡¡Worse, from a scientific viewpoint, Mr Summers may have compounded the problem by mentioning it. A slew of scientific research shows that if people are told they will fail, they will do so.

¡¡¡¡11¡¢No, but maybe yes

¡¡¡¡Feb 10th 2005 | NEW YORK From The Economist print edition

¡¡¡¡The city's mayor goes deliberately ambivalent

¡¡¡¡LAST year San Francisco's Mayor Gavin Newsom began handing out marriage licences to any gay couple who wanted one, only to find himself in a mess when California's courts ruled that the licences had no legal validity. Now New York's Mayor Michael Bloomberg has taken the opposite line. The Republican mayor is appealing against a lower court's decision allowing the city clerk to issue marriage licences to homosexuals (this contradicted two recent court decisions elsewhere in the state) while at the same time promising to push for a change in New York's laws.

¡¡¡¡This has brought predictable snorts from his opponents. The city council's Democratic speaker (and would-be mayor), Gifford Miller, has joined the crowd calling the mayor a coward. Another Democrat, Fernando Ferrer, Mr Bloomberg's most serious rival in the next election, calls him ¡°opportunistic¡±. And a fellow Republican, Thomas Ognibene, who would also like the mayor's job, has called him ¡°spineless¡±.

¡¡¡¡Legal recognition of a marriage has many practical consequences in America. There are, according to one gay-rights group, 1,100 federal benefits directly tied to marriage, to say nothing of hundreds more provided by states and private employers, as well as rights connected with inheritance and insurance coverage. All this adds to the homosexuals' argument for recognition of their marriages.

¡¡¡¡If the case now goes directly to the state's highest court, there will either be a full judicial endorsement of gay marriage, which Mr Bloomberg would endorse, or (more likely) the opposite. At present the state's law, as the plaintiffs acknowledge, is quite clear in not permitting same-sex marriage. However, in ruling in favour of five couples who last summer demanded marriage licences from the city clerk's office, the lower court said the law was unconstitutional on two grounds: failure to provide equal protection (by treating people differently because of their sexual orientation); and failure to provide due process (by failing to allow people the right of privacy to arrange their marriage free of unjustified government interference).

¡¡¡¡These arguments touch on difficult areas of law, and so far have arisen primarily in abortion and sodomy cases; the results have left neither side really happy. The Bloomberg approach, if successful, might ultimately encourage an endorsement of gay marriage to come about through the legislature, by a change of law backed by political will and public opinion. That will not be easy to achieve. Only a third of the people in New York state, on the evidence of current opinion polls, are in favour of gay marriage.

¡¡¡¡12¡¢Exams

¡¡¡¡A-levels reprieved

¡¡¡¡Feb 24th 2005 From The Economist print edition

¡¡¡¡Big changes are coming to exams, but not the ones that teachers wanted

¡¡¡¡CRITICS of vocational education are snobs, obsessed with academic qualifications. That was the official line¡ªbut now reality is dawning. Ruth Kelly, the education secretary, this week described vocational qualifications as ¡°second-class and second-rate¡±.

¡¡¡¡Sad, but true: if you are clever at school, you do lots of GCSE exams at 16, a bunch of A-levels at 18, and go to a good university. If you are not, you end up with rather few GCSEs, and instead do a confusing mix of qualifications with off-putting names like NVQ, GNVQ, AVCE, GSVQ, or BTECH; 3,500 variants are possible (nobody keeps a full count). If you get into a university, it is unlikely to be Oxford.

¡¡¡¡The current system of educating 14-19-year-olds is not just insanely complicated. It also pleases almost nobody. Employers complain that around a third of school leavers lack even the most basic numeracy and literacy. About a quarter of the least able pupils drop out at 16. The most able find it too easy to get A-grades at A-level, meaning that admission to sought-after university courses becomes a lottery.

¡¡¡¡Last year, in an official report, Sir Mike Tomlinson, a former chief schools inspector, proposed ingenious changes. The system should be more demanding, yet also more flexible, and more broadly based. The central proposal was to replace the existing exams with all-encompassing diplomas. That pleased the egalitarian-minded, who liked the idea of having the same kind of exams for both hairdressing and physics. But many¡ªincluding the prime minister¡ªregard even flawed A-levels and GCSEs as better than none.

¡¡¡¡So this week Ms Kelly binned Sir Mike's central recommendation, saying that A-levels and GCSEs would stay. The educational establishment is furious. But three big changes are coming.

¡¡¡¡The first is to make basic maths and English compulsory. The current benchmark for 16-year-olds, reached by 53% of pupils, is five passes at C or above at GCSE. But a fifth of those skip maths, English or both. Under the proposed scheme, five GCSEs will be relabelled a diploma¡ªbut gaining passes in new ¡°functional¡± maths and English will be mandatory. Those failing to reach this at 16 will keep trying, rather than leaving. From next year, school-performance league tables will be based on the new benchmark.

¡¡¡¡The second idea is to give disaffected pupils something to do outside school. From the age of 14, they will be offered placements with employers for two days a week. That sounds fine¡ªalthough finding employers keen to take schools' least-favourite pupils, and willing to overcome the legal and insurance problems of having minors on the premises, will be hard. The third change will be to allow clever pupils to take exams early, or even skip some of them altogether, and start more advanced courses while at school. That should help identify the brightest. It too sounds a fine idea, but even top private schools, with lots of money and good teachers, find it tricky to timetable lots of variation within one age-group's lessons. Teaching a subject at the same level to bright 13-year-olds alongside struggling 17-year-olds, for example, is not a recipe for classroom harmony.

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¡¡¡¡13¡¢Mobile e-mail

¡¡¡¡Nascent

¡¡¡¡May 12th 2005 | SAN FRANCISCO From The Economist print edition

¡¡¡¡The battle for the mobile e-mail business has barely begun

¡¡¡¡SUDDENLY, it seems, everyone is realising that the next big thing in telecoms and technology could be mobile e-mail. On May 10th, Microsoft, the world's largest software firm, unveiled a new version of its Windows operating system designed for mobile phones. This will be able to run programs from independent software firms, such as Silicon Valley's Visto, Good Technology, SEVEN and Intellisync, that will let mobile-phone users send and receive e-mail on their handsets. This follows a very busy April, when SEVEN bought Smartner, a Finnish rival, and Visto reached deals with the largest mobile operator in the world, Vodafone, and, in Canada, with Rogers Wireless, to start rolling out mobile e-mail services.

¡¡¡¡In the short term, this would seem to be bad news, above all, for Research in Motion (RIM), a Canadian firm that now dominates mobile e-mail with its BlackBerry handheld device (nicknamed ¡°CrackBerry¡± for its addictive nature). Unlike the smaller software firms snapping at its heels, RIM offers employers a complete service that includes both software and hardware. Controlling everything in this way let RIM establish an early lead.

¡¡¡¡The bigger picture is more intriguing. RIM has been stunningly successful, but even it has only around 3m users, mostly itinerant corporate executives. This compares with an estimated 150m employees worldwide who rely on e-mail but do not yet have a mobile service for it¡ªnot to mention the 1.5 billion consumers who have mobile phones, love text messaging and might also love e-mail. Of the 680m handsets sold last year, only 20m were so-called ¡°smartphones¡± that double as calendar, contact book and e-mail device.

¡¡¡¡¡°It is still early, early, early in this¡ªdare we say nascent?¡ªtrend,¡± says Pip Coburn, an analyst at UBS. He expects mobile e-mail to be a ¡°killer application¡± because it taps into people's strongest psycho-emotional needs¡ªthe urge to connect with others (and simultaneous fear of social isolation if they cannot), as well as the desire to be mobile¡ªwhile asking relatively little of them by way of new learning, as they already know how to send e-mail via their PCs. Indeed, e-mail is likely to blow away a lot of the other fancy services that mobile operators are hoping to push over their third-generation wireless networks. Andrew Odlyzko, a telecoms guru, once did a survey in which he asked people to choose, hypothetically, between having either e-mail or the entire content of the world wide web: 95% chose e-mail.

¡¡¡¡This has several implications. First, as Mr Coburn argues, the trend toward ¡°Swiss Army knife¡± handsets that do absolutely everything may not go very far, whereas simple and cheap ¡°dumb smartphones¡± that stick to connecting people via voice, text messaging and e-mail may ultimately win in the mass market. Second, for the software industry, the field is still wide open. Woody Hobbs, the boss of Intellisync, draws an analogy to PCs in the early 1980s. Apple was then ahead with a winning product bundle of proprietary hardware and software. But eventually it lost out to a host of hardware makers whose products were compatible with Microsoft's operating systems. Today, RIM might be cast as Apple; auditions have only just begun for all the other roles.

¡¡¡¡14¡¢Chinese tourists

¡¡¡¡Footfall

¡¡¡¡Jun 16th 2005 | BICESTER, OXFORDSHIRE From The Economist print edition

¡¡¡¡An early indication of what Chinese tourists like about Britain

¡¡¡¡JAPANESE tourists bearing credit cards loaded with yen transformed the fortunes of British tourism in the 1980s, and also rescued a handful of rather fusty British luxury brands. So the arrival of a new supply of Asian tourists, this time from China, is arousing some excitement. At the moment, Chinese visitors can travel to Britain only on business or student visas. But from the end of July, they will be allowed to visit Britain as tourists, thanks to an agreement signed by the British and Chinese governments earlier this year.

¡¡¡¡What might these people want to do when they are here? An early and rather bizarre indication came this week, when a group of 2,000 door-to-door salespeople who hawk Amway household cleaning products in China were brought to Britain as a reward for flogging exceptional quantities of bottles containing stuff for cleaning sinks. They were not on tourist visas, but their itinerary¡ªLondon, Oxford, shopping¡ªwas more like that of tourists than of the wealthy businessmen and cash-strapped students who can already visit.

¡¡¡¡The trip took 700 of them to Bicester Village, a collection of designer-outlet stores near Oxford. Though many of the most expensive fashion brands have shops at Bicester, the only place where it was difficult to get through the door was Clarks, makers of frumpy but sensible shoes for British adults and schoolchildren. Some of the shoppers were filling suitcases with the shoes. During a previous Amway visit, the store had to hire security guards to restrict entry to the store. Why the crush?

¡¡¡¡Oddly, Clarks shoes are apparently seen as luxury items in China. The company reckons that the brand, which has been around since 1825, may be helped by its lingering colonial associations. Its presence in Hong Kong when the Chinese market was opening up may also have allowed it to get its products into smart department stores before the competition: although many of the shoes are made in Guangdong, they are pricier there than in Bicester. Evidently much planning had gone into the shopping expedition: some shoppers brought pieces of string cut to the length of a friend's shoe to get the size right, others brought cardboard cut-outs of a child's foot.

¡¡¡¡The Britons present were bemused by this frenzy, but the incomprehension may be mutual. Market research by Visit Britain, a government agency, says that along with beautiful scenery and bits of castle, Chinese tourists coming to Britain expect to find friendly local people and delicious regional cooking.

¡¡¡¡15¡¢Boeing gets back on track

¡¡¡¡Jun 2nd 2005 | LOS ANGELES AND SEATTLE From The Economist print edition

¡¡¡¡As America goes on the offensive over subsidies to Airbus, Boeing, its biggest exporter, is learning valuable lessons from its rival's success

¡¡¡¡ANOTHER week, another twist in the eternal struggle between Airbus and Boeing. On May 30th, the American government began the latest round by announcing that it will take a case challenging European government subsidies to Airbus to the World Trade Organisation (WTO). The next day, the European Union (EU) filed a counter claim against the American government's aid to Boeing. The two sides had been trying (sort of) to settle the dispute in bilateral talks since late last year, but the Americans broke them off after Airbus applied for further aid to launch its new mid-sized A350 aircraft, designed to compete with Boeing's great white hope¡ªthe 200-300-seat 787, aimed at the fast-growing long-haul market.

¡¡¡¡This dispute has rumbled on since the late 1980s, when Airbus first started to weaken America's dominance of the commercial aircraft market. A truce in 1992, limiting ¡°refundable launch aid¡± to Airbus to one-third of development costs and Boeing's subsidies from government to 4% of its turnover, lasted until 1998. By then Airbus was steadily approaching 50% of the market. Last week Boeing's chairman, Lew Platt, conceded that, with hindsight, he wishes that Boeing had gone ahead in 1998 with a case it had prepared, supported by the Clinton administration, challenging subsidies to Airbus before the launch of the European firm's super-jumbo, the A380. But Boeing and its allies backed off. The new plane was successfully launched, with over 150 orders so far and at least 50 more to come at the Paris air show, which opens on June 13th (though the plane is six months behind schedule).

¡¡¡¡Now Boeing is gunning for the latest Airbus, the A350. An early buyer is supposed to be the new airline to be formed by the merger of America West and US Airways; indeed Airbus is pumping $250m of unsecured finance into the merger to land the deal. But the possibility that 100% import duties might be levied by America on Airbuses following a WTO ruling may deter further American purchases. The WTO is thought likely to find that both sides have breached subsidy rules. That prospect may create pressure for the two firms to¡ªagain¡ªseek a negotiated bilateral settlement, if only to avoid a wider trade war.

¡¡¡¡16¡¢Charlemagne

¡¡¡¡The euro is no cure-all

¡¡¡¡Apr 28th 2005 From The Economist print edition

¡¡¡¡French voters are right to fret about Euro-economics

¡¡¡¡HOW dare those materialistic French fret about unemployment and other bread-and-butter questions as they contemplate the lofty issues posed by the forthcoming referendum? That is what an irate Euro-establishment in Brussels is asking as it watches the Gallic debate. The electorate in France, Eurocrats complain, seems to be ignoring the topic in hand¡ªand anyway, what have job losses to do with the Union's defining document?

¡¡¡¡In fact, it is not unreasonable for the French and other Europeans to express their anger about the economy when voting on the constitution. For the last decade and more, the signature projects of the EU have been economic ones: in particular the launch of a single market in 1992, and a single currency in 1999. Each of these was sold on the basis of their economic benefits. And yet average unemployment in the 12 euro-area countries is almost 9% and growth is slow. It is not terribly surprising if politicians¡ªseeking to promote the latest brilliant idea from Brussels¡ªnow get a fairly cool reception.

¡¡¡¡Criticism of the economic policies promoted by Brussels may be unsurprising¡ªbut is it fair? Economists reckon that the single market has increased growth, albeit by less than promised. And the euro has promoted trade and price transparency¡ªas well as being a huge practical boon. But it is also true that many of the questions raised about the single currency before it was launched have yet to receive a satisfactory answer.

¡¡¡¡How would less productive economies cope with competition in the euro area when devaluation was no longer an option? Would a single interest rate for such different economies cause problems? Could Europe have a single currency without effective controls on national budgets? And is a monetary union ultimately sustainable without a political union to back it up?

¡¡¡¡The problems of the Italian economy raise the first question in an acute form. Since the single currency was born in 1999, Italian labour costs have risen by about 20% relative to Germany, because German firms have been much more effective at controlling wages and boosting productivity. While German exports have risen steadily, Italy's are struggling¡ªand the Italian economy is the slowest-growing of the big countries in the euro-area. If Italy had its own currency, devaluation would be a way to restore competitiveness, at least temporarily. But in a monetary union that is impossible. EU policymakers are worried.

¡¡¡¡In a speech last week at the Brussels Economic forum, Klaus Regling, the senior civil servant in the European Commission's economic directorate, commented that Italy's ¡°loss of competitiveness does not bode well for the country's economic prospects.¡± The audience waited for the soothingly optimistic balancing sentence that usually follows any such official comment¡ªbut it never came. Some EU economists argue that only a wrenching recession¡ªinvolving bankruptcies and cuts in nominal wages¡ªcan now restore Italian competitiveness. And they point out that Italy is not the only country in the euro-area to have a growing problem with competitiveness. Spain, Portugal, Greece and even Ireland, that paradigm of European success, face similar challenges.

¡¡¡¡But if Italy is suffering a decline in its competitive position, why is Germany not booming? In his speech, Mr Regling hinted that this too might have something to do with inappropriate policies caused by the euro. Strong German exports, he observed, had been offset by stagnating domestic demand. He added: ¡°Unavoidably in a monetary union, countries with below-average costs and prices experience relatively high...real interest rates.¡± Translation: when Germany needed lower interest rates to boost domestic demand, it did not get them because rates were set for the euro-area as a whole. Worse, Germany may now be stuck in a rut, because, as Mr Regling explained: ¡°Low growth expectations...have become entrenched.¡±

¡¡¡¡A commission's credibility

¡¡¡¡There is nothing the European Commission can do about the side-effects of a fixed exchange rate and a single interest rate for the euro area¡ªthey are inherent to a single currency. But when it comes to controlling budget deficits, the commission is determined to assert itself. Italy is again in the firing line. The commission intends to open an ¡°excessive-deficit procedure¡± against the Italian (and Portuguese) authorities, for repeatedly breaching the 3% limit on government deficits set for EU countries. Eurocrats see their credibility is at stake. Both Germany and France evaded commission action, by insisting on a rewrite of the EU rules governing government deficits. Many analysts have concluded that the new rules are worthless. Senior figures at the European Central Bank say that it is critical to the future of the single currency that the EU shows it can still enforce budgetary discipline.

¡¡¡¡But it is far from clear that the commission will win its Italian test case. After seeing the French and Germans escape sanctions, the Italians may see little point in co-operating¡ªall the more so since Silvio Berlusconi, the Italian prime minister, is desperate to push through tax cuts ahead of an election. The difficulty in enforcing budgetary discipline on national governments illustrates why some have always argued that monetary union needed to be followed by political union. Dominique Strauss-Kahn, a former French finance minister who played a crucial role in launching the euro, told last week's Brussels forum that it should not assume that the creation of the single currency was irreversible. If Europe did not advance further towards political union, he argued, there would come a time when political tensions between EU members became so high that they threatened the future of the euro. Unfortunately for Mr Strauss-Kahn, his own country's voters may soon be sending a message that makes life harder, putting it mildly, for political union's keenest advocates. What then happens to monetary union may be the next big question those people must face.

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¡¡¡¡17¡¢Big Pharma

¡¡¡¡The benefits of hypertension

¡¡¡¡Dec 4th 2003 From The Economist print edition

¡¡¡¡Growing pressure on pharmaceutical firms is a force for good

¡¡¡¡FIRMS today fall from grace with the alarming ease of wayward bishops£¬few industries, however, have tumbled as far, as fast and on as many fronts as drugmakers. Only five years ago, big firms were celebrated as the purveyors of exciting new medicines, such as Viagra, and even more stimulating earnings growth.

¡¡¡¡Today, firms are seen by many as more profiteering than profit-making. Companies are castigated for spending billions on research and development, only to deliver too many ¡°me too¡± drugs and too few genuinely new ones. Comparable sums spent on sales and marketing¡ªparticularly on direct-to-consumer advertising in America¡ªare lambasted for corrupting doctors and creating demand on the back of fancy publicity rather than legitimate medical need or product superiority. Efforts to fend off lower-cost competition from manufacturers of generic drugs through patent lawsuits leave companies accused of driving up the drugs bill in rich countries and depriving millions of life-saving medicines in poor ones The shares of most big drug firms now trade at a discount to the market, as promises of bright times ahead are marred by risk.

¡¡¡¡To be sure, pharma companies come in for criticism not just because they are more profitable than those in other sectors but because they are profitable in a field, medicine, where money makes people uneasy. And not only are drug companies profitable, but also visible: in America, rising hospital and physician costs are as much to blame for soaring insurance premiums as pharmaceuticals, but it is drugs which are the most obvious recurring expense and the one that consumers are asked, at least in part, to shoulder directly. Firms are caught between shareholders, who fear drug prices will fall, and consumers, who complain about their rise.

¡¡¡¡Some of the pain which big firms now feel is undoubtedly self-inflicted. Firms were slow to recognise the gathering storm around the lack of access to life-saving drugs in the developing world. Their public relations on most other issues remains pretty clumsy too, and their promises to investors have been overblown.

¡¡¡¡And yet it is also true that producing new drugs today has become a more complicated, costly and risky business than before and many firms now face a couple of years during which they will have relatively few new products coming to market. For example, using the human genome to identify promising new treatments is proving a much more difficult scientific task than many had predicted, and it will be many years before the promised flood of new drugs occurs.

¡¡¡¡Current pressures on pharmaceutical firms are forcing a long-overdue examination of how they organise research and development and these changes could cut the cost, in time and money, of R&D and eventually boost output GlaxoSmithKline, the world's second-largest company, this week showed early signs that such root-and-branch re-engineering is starting to bear fruit. The final step drug firms will need to take is to prove that the drugs they produce really do justify the prices charged, in conferring appreciable benefits compared with existing therapies.

¡¡¡¡18¡¢School meals

¡¡¡¡Eat up your greens

¡¡¡¡Dec 2nd 2004 From The Economist print edition

¡¡¡¡Can school meals be appetising, nutritious and profitable?

¡¡¡¡PUPILS, like soldiers, march on their stomachs. A well-nourished child is more likely to be a studious one. But food has been seen as a cost to be cut, rather than an ingredient of good schooling. That may now be changing: as the government worries about obesity¡ªwhich is rising fast among children¡ªand urges everyone to eat less salt, fat and sugar, and more fruit and vegetables, the paucity and unhealthiness of most school meals is striking. But cash constraints and rules on public-sector contracts make improvement hard.

¡¡¡¡Since cost-cutting began in the 1980s, quality has fallen along with food budgets. More and more children have chosen to bring packed lunches, spend their dinner money on fast food or skip lunch altogether. Now only half the pupils who could eat school meals do so. As numbers fall, the overheads become more burdensome and the pressure on ingredients greater. Of a typical £1.20-1.30 ($2.30-2.50) charged for a primary-school meal, labour costs account for 55p, equipment another 5p, administration charges up to 15p and profit 8p, according to Paul Kelly of Compass, a leading catering company. That leaves barely 40p for the ingredients. By contrast, a prison would spend 60p (per adult). The Dragon School in Oxford, a top junior school in the private sector, spends 75p per child and a hospital 90p.

¡¡¡¡The easiest way to get more children into the school dining room is to offer fast food, like chips and pizza¡ªbut that conflicts with improving nutrition. What is both tasty and good for you is likely to be more expensive. One way round that would be to cut labour costs¡ªwhich is impossible thanks to a government directive which says that workers in privatised services must have the same terms and conditions as they would have enjoyed in the public sector.

¡¡¡¡All this is no fun for contractors, whose margins are being squeezed. Compass and another big firm, Rentokil Initial, a conglomerate with its roots in rodent control, have complained that they are finding the primary-school business unattractive. ¡°We have decided not to go into that market,¡± says Mr Pollard of Avenance, an upmarket catering firm which mainly works for state hospitals and independent schools. ¡°We cannot provide the right food to put on a child's plate for 42p. The government has made the effort with hospital food, but has yet do so with schools.¡±

¡¡¡¡Some local authorities are getting fed up too. Essex County Council has given its 600 schools direct charge of catering. That has been good news for some¡ªchiefly large ones, or those able to form clusters in order to negotiate good deals. But it is bad news for small schools in remote areas, who benefited from a cross-subsidy under the old scheme. Around 75 of them have given up offering hot meals.

¡¡¡¡It is not just about money, says Neil Porter of the Local Authority Caterers' Association, who notes that school meals are only 15% of a child's annual food intake. It is unrealistic, he says, to think that they are the key to delivering better nutrition. ¡°Children live in a processed-food culture with at least two generations of parents who cannot cook and are themselves unfamiliar with certain foods,¡± he says. ¡°The vast majority of children will not eat in school what they do not recognise and do not eat outside of school.¡±

¡¡¡¡19¡¢Race and education

¡¡¡¡Black marks

¡¡¡¡Mar 10th 2005 From The Economist print edition

¡¡¡¡It's the natives, not the immigrants, that are the problem Alamy

¡¡¡¡WHITE people tend to be nervous of raising the subject of race and education, but are often voluble on the issue if a black person brings it up. So when Trevor Phillips, chairman of Britain's Commission for Racial Equality, said that there was a particular problem with black boys' performance at school, and that it might be a good idea to educate them apart from other pupils, there was a torrent of comment. Some of it commended his proposal, and some criticised it, but none of it questioned its premise. Everybody accepts that black boys are a problem.

¡¡¡¡On the face of it, it looks as though Mr Phillips is right. Only 27% of Afro-Caribbean boys get five A-C grades at GCSE, the exams taken by 16-year-olds, compared with 47% of boys as a whole and 44% of Afro-Caribbean girls. Since, in some subjects, candidates who score less than 50% get Cs, those who don't reach this threshold have picked up pretty little at school.

¡¡¡¡Mr Phillips's suggestion that black boys should be taught separately implies that ethnicity and gender explain their underachievement. Certainly, maleness seems to be a disadvantage at school. That's true for all ethnic groups: 57% of girls as a whole get five A-Cs, compared with 47% of boys. But it's not so clear that blackness is at the root of the problem.

¡¡¡¡Among children as a whole, Afro-Caribbeans do indeed perform badly. But Afro-Caribbeans tend to be poor. So to get a better idea of whether race, rather than poverty, is the problem, one must control for economic status. The only way to do that, given the limits of British educational statistics, is to separate out the exam results of children who get free school meals: only the poor get free grub.

¡¡¡¡Poor children's results tell a rather different story. Afro-Caribbeans still do remarkably badly, but whites are at the bottom of the pile. All ethnic minority groups do better than them. Even Bangladeshis, a pretty deprived lot, do twice as well as the natives in their exams; Indians and Chinese do better still. And absolute numbers of underperforming whites dwarf those of underperforming Afro-Caribbeans: last year, 131,393 of white boys failed to hit the government's benchmark, compared with 3,151 Afro-Caribbean boys.

¡¡¡¡These figures suggest that, at school at least, black people's problem is not so much race as poverty. And they undermine the idea of teaching black boys separately, for if poor whites are doing worse than poor blacks, there's not much argument for singling out blacks for special measures: whites need help just as badly.

¡¡¡¡It's a nice thought

¡¡¡¡This isn't, however, a message that anybody much wants to hear. Many white people find the idea that there's something fundamentally wrong with black people comforting: it confirms deeply held prejudices and reassures them that a whole complex of social problems¡ªstarting with underachievement in schools, but leading on to unemployment, drug addiction and crime¡ªis nothing to do with them.

¡¡¡¡The race-relations industry also has an interest in explaining educational underachievement in terms of ethnicity. A whole raft of committees, commissions and task forces has been set up on the assumption that racial differences are a fundamental cause of social problems. If that's wrong, then all those worthies might as well pack up and go home.

¡¡¡¡Trying to explain educational underachievement away as a racial issue may be comforting and convenient, but it is also dangerous, for it distracts attention from the real problem¡ªthat the school system fails the poor. That's not a black problem or a white problem: it's a British problem.

¡¡¡¡20¡¢Restoring hearing

¡¡¡¡Hair tonic

¡¡¡¡Feb 17th 2005 From The Economist print edition

¡¡¡¡Gene therapy may restore lost hearing and balance

¡¡¡¡EVOLUTION has provided people with an exquisitely sensitive system of hearing and balance¡ªthe inner ear. But that sensitivity comes at a price, for the inner ear is also the sensory system most susceptible to damage. Nearly one child in 1,000 is born profoundly deaf, and if you are lucky enough to live to be 80, you have a 50% chance of losing enough of your hearing on the way for normal conversation to be troublesome without a hearing aid.

¡¡¡¡Often, the reason is damage to specialised sensory cells known as hair cells. The hair-like cilia that give these cells their name act as transducers. They convert the vibrations of sound into electrical impulses that the nervous system can handle. But cilia are fragile. Loud noises, such as those produced by machinery and booming stereos, can knock them away. So can some infections, such as meningitis. And so can some antibiotics. This damage is, at the moment, irreversible. But if Yehoash Raphael of the University of Michigan and his colleagues have their way, that will not be true for much longer.

¡¡¡¡Over the past two decades, many of the genes required for ear development have been identified. One of the most important is called Math1. But it is active only in embryos. Dr Raphael wondered, therefore, whether it would be possible to turn it on in adults, and thus generate new cilia.

¡¡¡¡The adults in question were guinea pigs¡ªboth literally and metaphorically. (Despite the colloquial use of the name, experiments involving rodents more often use mice or rats.) They were treated with antibiotics, to kill their hair cells. This made them completely deaf. Then, after four days, their left ears were infected with an adenovirus (one of the sorts of virus that cause colds). Half the infections were with viruses that had had a Math1 gene engineered into them. Half used viruses that had had a dummy DNA sequence engineered in instead. The hope was that the Math1 gene would be activated in the infected cells, which would then grow cilia, thus becoming hair cells. And it worked. As Dr Raphael reports in Nature Medicine, eight weeks later the animals treated with Math1-carrying adenovirus had regenerated their hair cells and were able to hear.

¡¡¡¡Their hearing was not restored completely. Although they were able to perceive sounds in the range of 40-50 decibels¡ªsimilar to the volume of a typical conversation¡ªDr Raphael suspects that what they heard was rather fuzzy. That is because the treatment only caused the regrowth of a group of cells called the inner hair cells. These determine the threshold of hearing. A second group, the outer hair cells, did not reappear. The outer cells are responsible for amplifying sound, and for modulating its quality. Dr Raphael suspects that a second gene will need to be added to the viral package to stimulate the outer cells' regrowth.

¡¡¡¡Meanwhile, at the University of Maryland, Hinrich Staecker has been doing similar experiments designed to restore balance in mice. In these experiments, which have yet to be published, he uses an antibiotic injection to knock out the hair cells devoted to balance. (These cells work by detecting movements in the fluid that fills the canals of the inner ear.) Forty-eight hours later, he injects the animals with adenoviruses containing Math1 genes. A month after the injection, the animals have regained their sense of balance.

¡¡¡¡Both groups of researchers think this is the beginning of a new approach to treating inner-ear problems. Dr Staecker predicts that the first Math1 gene-therapy trials will happen in people who have lost their sense of balance. If those work, hair cell-regeneration treatments for deafness may follow. There is still a long way to go. Trials of any kind are probably five years away. But it looks as if science is having more luck restoring the hairs of the ears to youthful vigour than it is with the hairs of the head.

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